Complete study notes for BEVAE-181 Block 4 Unit 14. Covers the definition and need for environmental ethics (three reasons: new effects, new knowledge, expanding moral concerns), three cultural views about nature (Western, Sineatic, Indian), four attitudes towards nature (anthropocentrism and enlightened anthropocentrism, stewardship, ecofeminism, biocentrism and Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic, ecocentrism), three categories of environmental equity (procedural, geographical, social inequity), environmental justice definition, environmental racism, detailed religious teachings on environment from all six major religions (Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism), environmental communication and stage-wise education framework for schools and colleges (NCERT, Table 14.1), ENVIS information system and its centres, and collective actions (student environment groups, environmental campaigns with Margaret Mead's quote). Includes diagrams, SAQs, and model answers for all terminal questions. Free PDF download.
Unit 14 · Index
Many environmental problems are in fact social issues in terms of moral and ethical values. This unit reviews environmental ethics, our views and beliefs about nature, issues of environmental equity, environmental justice and racial discrimination in managing the environment, and the teachings about environment in the major religions practiced in South Asia. Building a just, stable, harmonious world for future generations should be the central organising principle for civilisation.
The release of noxious gases into the atmosphere, destruction of forests and over-exploitation of natural resources have caused irreversible environmental damage throughout the world. In some cases the damage is so severe that life-support systems, both local and global, are being threatened. Unless we curb our desire for more and more material possessions and unceasing economic growth, continued ecological damage will be unavoidable.
Ethics seeks to define what is right and what is wrong on a universal basis. Preserving human life, concern for others, honesty and truthfulness = ethical. Stealing, lying, cheating, killing and indifference to well-being of others = unethical.
Moral values reflect the dominant belief of a particular culture about what is right and wrong. These vary by culture and religion — making ethics complex.
Environmental Ethics = a discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings, and also the value and moral status of the environment and its non-human contents.
As modern technological civilisation affects nature greatly, we must examine the ethical consequences of these new technological actions on ecosystems and other species.
Modern science demonstrates how we have changed our environment in ways not previously understood. Burning fossil fuels and clearing forests increase CO₂ and cause climate change — raising new ethical issues about our global responsibilities.
Some argue that animals, trees, and even rocks have moral and legal rights. Ethics must now include the rights of animals, plants, and the environment — beyond just human rights.
The way we treat the environment reveals much about our beliefs regarding ourselves and the world around us. Different points of view lead to contradictory environmental policies.
People having an anthropocentric attitude assign significantly greater value to human beings than any other non-human organisms. According to Aristotle: 'Nature has made all things specifically for the sake of man' — non-human things have only instrumental value for humans. Protection of human interests at expense of non-human things = nearly always justified.
Challenged in early 1970s with emergence of environmental ethics. However, some theorists advocate enlightened anthropocentrism (prudential anthropocentrism) — all moral duties we have towards environment are derived from direct duties to its human inhabitants.
Many tribal/indigenous people have a strong sense of stewardship — responsibility for a particular part of nature. As custodian of resources, they see their proper role as working together with human and non-human forces to sustain life. Humanity and reverence are essential — humans are seen as partners in the natural process, not masters; part of nature, not outside it.
Stewardship requires considering the entire universe as one's extended family, with all living organisms as household members. Does not reject science or technology — sees intelligence and discoveries as parts of nature too. As stewards, we have a duty to use science and technology to improve rather than destroy the world.
Many feminists argue that neither anthropocentrism nor stewardship is sufficient. They argue all these philosophies come from a patriarchal system based on domination and duality. Feminists see connection between patriarchal domination, exploitation of women/children/minorities and exploitation of nature.
Ecofeminism is radically a new vision rooted in women's biological, procreative, and maternal role. According to some experts: 'The capitalist, patriarchal world system is founded upon three colonisations — of women, of foreign people and their lands, and of nature.' Ecofeminism seeks to forge a 'new sexual and reproductive ecology.'
Ecofeminist philosophy is pluralistic, non-hierarchical, relationship-oriented — suggests humans could reconsider their relationship to nature in non-dominating ways. Promotes care, reciprocity, and kinship over rights, obligations, and ownership. However, it has been criticised for impracticability and its peculiar biases — critics argue not all development is patriarchal and anti-women.
All living organisms have values and rights regardless of whether they are useful to humans or not. Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic included the whole biotic community as part of the land. Values and rights should be extended to recognition of inherent worth in other organisms — as history has extended rights first to men, then women, children, minorities, and more recently to corporations.
Even nonliving components — rocks, rivers, mountains, ecological processes (succession, hydrological cycle) — have a right to exist in their natural state without human interference. Claims moral values and rights for both organisms AND ecological systems. Environment was in perfect balance until modern humans disrupted the web of life in their quest to dominate nature.
a)–v (Nature alien/hostile) b)–iv (God created humans; humans dominant) c)–i (Strong sense of responsibility) d)–iii (Patriarchal system criticism) e)–ii (All living organisms have values)
An ideal of equal treatment and protection for various racial, ethnic, and income groups under environmental statutes, regulations, and practices — applied in a manner that yields no substantial differential impacts relative to the dominant group.
The right to a safe, healthy, productive, and sustainable environment for all — where "environment" is considered in its totality (ecological, physical, social, political, aesthetic, and economic). Environmental justice acknowledges environmental "injustice" as the past and present state of affairs and expresses the socio-political objectives needed to address them.
"Environmental justice has been defined as the pursuit of equal justice and equal protection under the law for all environmental statutes and regulations without discrimination based on race, ethnicity and/or socioeconomic status."
Environmental consequences of resource use fall disproportionately on disadvantaged racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups. Hazardous waste sites are usually located in disadvantaged communities and nations. People in these locations bear the consequences of hazardous materials without reaping proportional benefits. This is the concern of the environmental justice movement.
Some argue environmentalism is an elitist movement (for those with money and leisure). Others counter that the poor suffer most from environmental problems — they live near polluted areas, work in dirty industries, and lack political power to push back.
i) Environmental ii) Earth iii) Justice iv) Environmentalism v) Minorities, Jobs
World religions and individual spiritual traditions can provide a framework for changing our attitudes. All religions teach that we should consider ourselves only as trustees of the universe, and as trustees we are authorised to use natural resources but have no divine power over nature. The abuse and exploitation of nature for immediate gain is unjust and unethical according to all religions.
In Hinduism, only the Supreme God has absolute sovereignty over all creatures, including humans. Human beings have no dominion over their own lives or over non-human life. They cannot act as viceroys of God, nor assign relative worth to other species. The sacredness of God's creation demands that no damage may be inflicted on other species without adequate justification. All lives — human and non-human — are of equal value and have the same right to existence.
Hindu scriptures forbid exploitation of nature — advise seeking peace and living in harmony with nature. "Evolution of life on this planet is symbolised by a series of divine incarnations beginning with fish, moving through amphibious forms and mammals, and then on into human incarnations. Man did not spring fully formed to dominate the lesser life forms, but rather evolved out of these forms itself, and is therefore integrally linked to the whole of creation." (Dr. Karan Singh, Assisi Declaration)
Many trees and plants were worshipped during Rig Veda (~1500 BC) because they symbolised various attributes of God. Tree worship is found in Mohenjodaro and Indus civilisations. Aranyani (queen of forests = tree goddess), Ganga, Himavan, Tulsi, Peepal, and Banyan are still considered holy. Vedic man worshipped Sun, Agni, Prithvi, and Sky as deities sustaining life. Planting trees proclaimed as conducive to great merit in Puranas. Charaka Samhita (Ayurvedic text) deals with divine herbs and environmental balance for health.
Jainism places great emphasis on refraining from avoidable acts harmful to others. Violence grows out of passion, and one who has passion causes self-injury. Ahimsa (non-violence) is the fundamental tenet of the Jain way of life — a term clearly allied with realism, common sense, and personal worth and responsibility. Jains take a vow of control of speech, thought, movement, care in taking things up and putting them down, and examining food and drink. Like order comes from order; peace can only be achieved through peace.
At the very core of Buddhism: compassion, respect, tolerance and ahimsa (non-injury) towards all human beings and all other creatures sharing this planet. Buddha set down rules forbidding the pollution of rivers, ponds and wells. Buddhists regard the survival of all species as an undeniable right — as co-inhabitants of this planet, they have the same rights as humans. In Buddhism, rivers, forests, grass, mountains, and the night are highly respected and regarded as bliss-bestowers. Buddhist ethics are based on the theory of Karma and cause-and-effect — all life is interconnected and should be cared for.
There is a common thread in the Old and New Testaments concerning nature and our responsibility to it. The Bible establishes God as the sole owner of the natural world, while humanity is actively responsible for its care. Genesis 2:15: "And the Lord God took the man and put him into the Garden of Eden to dress it and keep it." "Dress" = duty to manage; "Keep" = protect the natural world from harm. Psalm 24:1: "The earth is the Lord's and everything in it." Psalm 50:10: "Every animal in the forest is mine, and the cattle on a thousand hills." The Bible confirms we have no rightful ownership over land: "because the land is mine, and you are but aliens and my tenants." The Earth is not a lifeless entity or means to some higher end — divine life is actively manifested in and through the created world.
The Holy Quran and Prophet Muhammad's teachings form the foundation. The Quranic message is one of unity, harmony, balance and order. Nature's laws must be observed, and defined limits should not be exceeded. Quran 7:54: "His is to create and to govern." Quran 15:21: "We send it in regulated quantities." Quran 54:49: "We have created everything in proportion and due measure."
Humanity has only a guardianship role in God's heaven and earth — not outright ownership. Riches of the earth are a common heritage. Everyone may benefit from them, make them productive, and use them — but quest for progress and development must not be detrimental to the environment. In both the Quran and the Shariah, the rights of the natural world are strongly expressed and abuse by humans is condemned.
Baba Guru Nanak Dev assigned divine attributes to nature. According to Sikhism, people should respect God's creations. God has not granted any special or absolute power to humans to control and dominate nature. To the contrary, the human race is an integral part of nature, linked to the rest of creation by indissoluble bounds. God Himself is the source of birth, sustenance and eventual destruction of all living organisms. The Adi Guru Granth Sahib states: "From Primal truth emanated air / From air emanated water / From water emanated three worlds / And Himself the merged with the creation." Sikhism teaches that the natural environment and the survival of all life forms are closely linked in the rhythm of nature.
a)–vi (Human beings have no dominion — all life of equal value) b)–v (Violence grows out of passion — Ahimsa) c)–i (Compassion, respect, ahimsa) d)–ii (God put man in garden to dress and keep it) e)–iii (Earth's riches = common heritage; guardianship) f)–iv (People should respect God's creations; humans = integral part of nature)
Education for environmental awareness is essential for the younger AND older generation, both urban and rural populations. Environment education needs to be conveyed through formal education systems, non-formal education systems, and use of mass media.
Need to cut across boundaries of illiteracy and reach the masses through adult education. Emphasis on environmental education for women, tribals, agricultural labour, slum-dwellers, and residents of drought-prone areas. Methods for creating environmental awareness:
MoEFCC has created ENVIS (Environmental Information System). Main centre in Delhi. Responsible for collecting, compiling and providing information on different aspects of environment. ENVIS centres cover: pollution control (CPCB), toxic chemicals (ITCR), environmentally sound alternatives (SDA), media-parliament environment (ESG), coastal and offshore ecology, renewable energy (TERI), eco-toxicology (Anna University), Western Ghats ecology (IISc Bangalore), environmental management, and occupational health.
Collective action multiplies individual's power:
Could be our most active and effective groups for environmental change. Teaching ecology and environmental ethics at school level + training on problems and solutions + involving in community projects = very effective. Margaret Mead: "Never doubt that a small, highly committed group of individuals can change the world; indeed, it is the only thing that ever has."
Most effective tool to bring attention of national and international planners and decision-makers. Dynamic process requiring constant adaptation. Should be inclusive of all stakeholders, benefit common people, and backed by scientific knowledge. Using communication media to get the message out is an important modern component.
i) F — Essential for both younger AND older generation, urban AND rural. ii) T iii) T — Primary: awareness and real-life situations; conservation comes at higher secondary. iv) T v) T — ENVIS main centre is in Delhi. vi) F — Margaret Mead said exactly the opposite: a small committed group CAN change the world.
Exam-style questions from the IGNOU textbook.
Environmental Ethics is a discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings, and also the value and moral status of the environment and its non-human contents. For most of human history, ethics concentrated on human rights (rights of individuals, families, ethnic groups). Environmental ethics formally extends ethics to include the rights of animals, plants, and the environment.
Why we need environmental ethics — three reasons:
Environmental ethics seeks to answer: How should we relate to nature? What rights does the environment have? What are our obligations to future generations? Four main philosophical positions: Anthropocentrism (human-centred), Stewardship (humans as caretakers), Ecofeminism (patriarchal domination = root cause), Biocentrism/Ecocentrism (all organisms/systems have inherent rights).
Environmental equity is critical for effective and just environmental management. Without equity, policies may protect certain groups while exploiting others — leading to social conflict and undermining long-term sustainability.
Three dimensions of equity in environmental management:
Providing environmental justice goes beyond stated definitions — it includes guaranteeing equal access to relief and meaningful community participation with government and industry decision-makers. Without equity, environmental policies will be resisted, circumvented, and ultimately fail.
All major religions consistently teach that humans are trustees or stewards, not masters of nature. Key teachings:
Student Environment Groups: Could be among our most active and effective groups. By teaching ecology and environmental ethics at elementary and secondary school level, training students about problems and solutions, and involving them in community projects, the purposes of environmental management can be served very effectively. As Margaret Mead said: "Never doubt that a small, highly committed group of individuals can change the world; indeed, it is the only thing that ever has."
Environmental Campaigns: Most effective tool to bring attention of national and international planners, decision-makers, and managers towards a particular issue. Benefits: (1) Bring individuals together who share interests — encouragement and useful information; (2) A support group maintains enthusiasm when individual efforts seem slow; (3) Collective action multiplies individual power. Basic principles: campaigns should be inclusive of all stakeholders; should benefit common people; should be backed by scientific knowledge; should use communication media effectively to get the message out.
Examples from India: Chipko Movement (stopped commercial felling through people's power), Silent Valley Movement (stopped a dam through citizen pressure), Mehta's PIL for Taj Mahal and Ganga (used legal channels backed by public awareness). These show that organised collective action — whether through civil society, legal channels, or democratic processes — can create lasting environmental change.
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